Method of distinguished element

In enumerative combinatorial mathematics, identities are sometimes established by arguments that rely on singling out one "distinguished element" of a set.

Examples

The binomial coefficient ${n \choose k}$ is the number of size-k subsets of a size-n set. A basic identity, one of whose consequences is that these are precisely the numbers appearing in Pascal's triangle, states that:

${n \choose k-1}%2B{n \choose k}={n%2B1 \choose k}.$

Proof: In a size-(n + 1) set, choose one distinguished element. The set of all size-k subsets contains: (1) all size-k subsets that do contain the distinguished element, and (2) all size-k subsets that do not contain the distinguished element. If a size-k subset of a size-(n + 1) set does contain the distinguished element, then its other k − 1 elements are chosen from among the other n elements of our size-(n + 1) set. The number of ways to choose those is therefore ${n \choose k-1}$ . If a size-k subset does not contain the distinguished element, then all of its k members are chosen from among the other n "non-distinguished" elements. The number of ways to choose those is therefore ${n \choose k}$ .

The number of subsets of any size-n set is 2ⁿ.

Proof: We use mathematical induction. The basis for induction is the truth of this proposition in case n = 0. The empty set has 0 members and 1 subset, and 2⁰ = 1. The induction hypothesis is the proposition in case n; we use it to prove case n + 1. In a size-(n + 1) set, choose a distinguished element. Each subset either contains the distinguished element or does not. If a subset contains the distinguished element, then its remaining elements are chosen from among the other n elements. By the induction hypothesis, the number of ways to do that is 2ⁿ. If a subset does not contain the distinguished element, then it is a subset of the set of all non-distinguished elements. By the induction hypothesis, the number of such subsets is 2ⁿ. Finally, the whole list of subsets of our size-(n + 1) set contains 2ⁿ + 2ⁿ = 2ⁿ⁺¹ elements.

Let B_n be the nth Bell number, i.e., the number of partitions of a set of n members. Let C_n be the total number of "parts" (or "blocks", as combinatorialists often call them) among all partitions of that set. For example, the partitions of the size-3 set {a, b, c} may be written thus:

$\begin{matrix}abc \\ a/bc \\ b/ac \\ c/ab \\ a/b/c \end{matrix}$

We see 5 partitions, containing 10 blocks, so B₃ = 5 and C₃ = 10. An identity states:

$B_n%2BC_n=B_{n%2B1}.\,$

Proof: In a size-(n + 1) set, choose a distinguished element. In each partition of our size-(n + 1) set, either the distinguished element is a "singleton", i.e., the set containing only the distinguished element is one of the blocks, or the distinguished element belongs to a larger block. If the distinguished element is a singleton, then deletion of the distinguished element leaves a partition of the set containing the n non-distinguished elements. There are B_n ways to do that. If the distinguished element belongs to a larger block, then its deletion leaves a block in a partition of the set containing the n non-distinguished elements. There are C_n such blocks.

Method of distinguished element

Examples

See also